Venomous Sea Snake Facts (Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae)

Venomous Sea Snake Facts (Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae) Sea snakes include 60 species of marine snakes from the cobra family (Elapidae). These reptiles fall into two groups: true sea snakes (subfamily Hydrophiinae) and sea kraits (subfamily Laticaudinae). The true sea snakes are most closely related to Australian cobras, while kraits are related to Asian cobras. Like their terrestrial relatives, sea snakes are highly venomous. Unlike terrestrial cobras, most sea snakes are not aggressive (with exceptions), have small fangs, and avoid delivering venom when they bite. While similar to cobras in many respects, sea snakes are fascinating, unique creatures, perfectly adapted to life in the sea. Fast Facts: Venomous Sea Snake Scientific Name: Subfamilies Hydrophiinae and LaticaudinaeCommon Names: Sea snake, coral reef snakeBasic Animal Group: ReptileSize: 3-5 feetWeight: 1.7-2.9 poundsLifespan: Estimated 10 yearsDiet: CarnivoreHabitat: Coastal Indian and Pacific OceanPopulation: UnknownConservation Status: Most species are Least Concern Description Yellow-bellied sea snake (Hydrophis platurus), illustrating the body shape of a true sea snake. Nastasic / Getty Images Aside from analyzing its DNA, the best way to identify a sea snake is by its tail. The two types of sea snakes have very different appearances because they have evolved to live different aquatic lives. The true sea snakes have flattened, ribbon-like bodies, with oarlike tails. Their nostrils are on top of their snouts, making it easier for them to breathe when they surface. They have small body scales and may lack belly scales entirely. True sea snake adults range from 1 to 1.5 meters (3.3 to 5 feet) in length, although a length of 3 meters is possible. These snakes crawl awkwardly on land and may become aggressive, although they cannot coil to strike. You can find both true sea snakes and kraits in the sea, but only sea kraits crawl efficiently on land. A sea krait has a flattened tail, but it has a cylindrical body, lateral nostrils, and enlarged belly scales like a terrestrial snake. A typical krait color pattern is black alternating with bands of white, blue, or gray. Sea kraits are somewhat shorter than true sea snakes. An average adult krait is about 1 meter in length, although some specimens reach 1.5 meters. Habitat and Distribution Sea snakes are found throughout the coastal waters of the Indian and Pacific oceans. They do not occur in the Red Sea, Atlantic Ocean, or Caribbean Sea. Most sea snakes live in shallow water less than 30 meters (100 feet) deep because they need to surface to breathe, yet must seek their prey near the sea floor. However, the yellow-bellied sea snake (Pelamis platurus) may be found in the open ocean. The so-called California sea snake is Pelamis platurus. Pelamis, like other sea snakes, cannot live in cool water. Below a certain temperature, the snake is unable to digest food. Snakes may be found washed up on shores in the temperature zone, typically driven by storms. However, they call the tropics and subtropics their home.   The so-called California sea snake is actually the yellow-bellied sea snake. Auscape / UIG / Getty Images Diet and Behavior The true sea snakes are predators that eat small fish, fish eggs, and young octopuses. True sea snakes may be active during the day or at night. Sea kraits are nocturnal feeders that prefer to feed on eels, supplementing their diet with crabs, squid, and fish. While they have not been observed feeding on land, kraits return to it to digest prey. Some sea snakes host the sea snake barnacle (Platylepas ophiophila), which hitches a ride to catch food. Sea snakes (kraits) may also host parasitic ticks. Sea snakes are preyed upon by eels, sharks, large fish, sea eagles, and crocodiles. Should you find yourself stranded at sea, you can eat sea snakes (just avoid getting bitten). You can tell this is a krait because it has nostrils on either side of its snout. Todd Winner/Stocktrek Images / Getty Images Like other snakes, sea snakes need to breathe air. While kraits surface for air regularly, true sea snakes can remain submerged for around 8 hours. These snakes can breathe through their skin, absorbing up to 33 percent of needed oxygen and expelling up to 90 percent of waste carbon dioxide. The left lung of a true sea snake is enlarged, running much of its body length. The lung affects the animals buoyancy and buys it time underwater. The nostrils of a true sea snake close when the animal is underwater. While they live in the oceans, sea snakes cannot extract fresh water from the saline sea. Kraits may drink water from land or the sea surface. True sea snakes must wait for rain so they may drink the relatively fresh water floating on the seas surface. Sea snakes can die of thirst. Reproduction and Offspring Olive sea snake two days old, Reef HQ Aquarium, Townsville, Queensland, Australia. Auscape / UIG / Getty Images The true sea snakes may be oviparous (lay eggs) or ovoviviparous (live birth from fertilized eggs held within the females body). The mating behavior of the reptiles is unknown, but it may be linked to the occasional schooling of large numbers of snakes. The average clutch size is 3 to 4 young, but as many as 34 young may be born. Snakes born in the water may be nearly as large as adults. The genus Laticauda is the only oviparous group of true sea snakes. These snakes lay their eggs on land. All sea kraits mate on land and lay their eggs (oviparous) in rock crevices and caves on shore. A female krait may deposit from 1 to 10 eggs before returning to the water. Sea Snake Senses Olive sea snake, Hydrophiidae, Pacific ocean, Papua New Guinea. Reinhard Dirscherl / Getty Images Like other snakes, sea snakes flick their tongues to gain chemical and thermal information about their environment. Sea snake tongues are shorter than those of regular snakes because its easier to taste molecules in water than in air. Sea snakes ingest salt with prey, so the animal has special sublingual glands under its tongue that allow it to remove excess salt from its blood and expel it with a tongue flick. Scientists dont know much about sea snake vision, but it appears to play a limited role in catching prey and selecting mates. Sea snakes have special mechanoreceptors that help them sense vibration and movement. Some snakes respond to pheromones to identify mates. At least one sea snake, the olive sea snake (Aipysurus laevis), has photoreceptors in its tail that allow it to sense light. Sea snakes may be able to detect electromagnetic fields and pressure, but the cells responsible for these senses have yet to be identified. Sea Snake Venom Sea snakes bear close observation, but may bite if threatened. Joe Dovala / Getty Images Most sea snakes are highly venomous. Some are even more venomous than cobras! The venom is a deadly mixture of neurotoxins and myotoxins. However, humans rarely get bitten, and when they do, the snakes rarely deliver venom. Even when envenomation (venom injection) does occur, the bite may be painless and initially produce no symptoms. Its common for some of the snakes small teeth to remain in the wound. Symptoms of sea snake poisoning occur within 30 minutes to several hours. They include headache, stiffness, and muscle pain throughout the body. Thirst, sweating, vomiting, and a thick-feeling tongue may result. Rhadomyolisis (muscle degradation) and paralysis ensue. Death occurs if the muscles involved in swallowing and respiration are affected. Because bites are so rare, antivenin is next to impossible to obtain. In Australia, a specific sea snake antivenin exists, plus the antivenin for the Ausatralian tiger snake may be used as a substitute. Elsewhere, youre pretty much out of luck. The snakes are not aggressive unless they or their nest are threatened, but its best to leave them alone. The same caution should be applied to snakes washed up on beaches. Snakes may play dead as a defense mechanism. Even a dead or decapitated snake may bite via reflex. Conservation Status Habitat destruction and over-fishing are threats to sea snake survival. Hal Beral / Getty Images Sea snakes, as a whole, are not endangered. However, there are some species on the IUCN Red List. Laticauda crockeri is vulnerable, Aipysurus fuscus is endangered, and Aipysurus foliosquama (leaf-scaled sea snake) and Aipysurus apraefrontalis (short-nose sea snake) are critically endangered. Sea snakes are difficult to keep in captivity, due to their specialized diets and habitat requirements. They need to be housed in rounded tanks to avoid damaging themselves on corners. Some need to be able to exit the water. Pelamis platurus accepts goldfish as food and can survive captivity. Animals That Resemble Sea Snakes Garden eels look a bit like snakes. Mark Newman / Getty Images There are several animals that resemble sea snakes. Some are relatively harmless, while others are venomous and more aggressive than their aquatic cousins. Eels are often mistaken for sea snakes because they live in the water,  have a serpentine appearance, and breathe air. Some species of eels can give a nasty bite. A few are poisonous. Some species can deliver an electric shock. The sea snakes cousin is the cobra. Cobras are excellent swimmers that can deliver a deadly bite. While they are most often found swimming in freshwater, they are at ease in coastal saltwater, too. Other snakes, both on land and water, may be confused with sea snakes. While the true sea snakes may be recognized by their flattened bodies and oar-shaped tails, the only visible trait distinguishing sea kraits from other snakes is a somewhat flattened tail. Sources Coborn, John.  The Atlas of Snakes of the World. New Jersey: T.F.H. Publications, inc. 1991.Cogger, Hal.  Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia. Sydney, NSW: Reed New Holland. p.  722, 2000.Motani, Ryosuke. The Evolution of Marine Reptiles.  Evo Edu Outreach.  2: 224–235, May, 2009.Mehrtens J M. Living Snakes of the World in Color. New York: Sterling Publishers. 480 pp., 1987

Battle of Ridgefield in the American Revolution

Battle of Ridgefield in the American Revolution Battle of Ridgefield - Conflict Date: The Battle of Ridgefield was fought April 27, 1777, during the American Revolution (1775-1783). Armies Commanders Americans Major General David WoosterBrigadier General Benedict Arnold700 rising to 1,000 menBritishMajor General William Tryon1,800 men Battle of Ridgefield - Background: In 1777, General Sir William Howe, commanding British forces in North America, commenced planning operations designed to capture the American capital at Philadelphia.   These called for him to embark the bulk of his army in New York City and sail to  the Chesapeake Bay  where he would strike his target from the south.   In preparing for his absence, he  provided the  Royal  Governor of New York, William Tryon, with a local commission as a major general and directed him  to harass American forces in the Hudson Valley and Connecticut.   Early that spring, Howe learned through his intelligence network of the existence of a large Continental Army depot at Danbury, CT.   An inviting target, he instructed Tryon to  put together a  raid to  destroy it. Battle of Ridgefield - Tryon Prepares: To accomplish this objective, Tryon assembled a fleet of twelve transports, a hospital ship, and several smaller vessels.   Overseen by Captain Henry Duncan, the fleet was to transport the 1,800 men of the landing force up the coast to Compo Point (in present-day Westport).  Ã‚  This command drew troops from 4th, 15th, 23rd, 27th, 44th, and 64th Regiments of Foot as well as contained a group of 300 Loyalists  taken from  the Prince of Wales American Regiment.   Departing on April 22, Tyron and Duncan  spent three days working their way up the coast.   Anchoring in the  Saugatuck River,  the British advanced eight miles inland before making camp. Battle of Ridgefield - Striking Danbury: Pushing north the next day, Tryons men reached Danbury and  found Colonel Joseph P. Cookes small garrison attempting to remove the supplies to safety.   Attacking, the British drove off Cookes men after a brief skirmish.   Securing the depot, Tryon directed  its contents, largely foodstuffs, uniforms, and equipment, to be burned.   Remaining in Danbury through the day, the British continued the destruction of the depot.  Ã‚  Around 1:00 AM on the night April 27, Tryon received word that American forces were approaching the town.   Rather than risk being cut off from the coast, he ordered the houses of Patriot supporters burned and made preparations to depart. Battle of Ridgefield - The Americans Respond: On April 26, as Duncans ships passed Norwalk, word  of the enemys approach reached  Major General David Wooster of the Connecticut militia and Continental Brigadier General Benedict Arnold at New Haven.   Raising the local militia, Wooster ordered it to proceed to Fairfield.   Following, he and Arnold arrived to find that the commander of the Fairfield County militia, Brigadier General Gold Silliman, had raised his men and moved north to Redding leaving orders that newly-arrived troops should join him there.   Uniting with Silliman,  the combined American force numbered 500 militia and 100 Continental regulars.   Advancing towards Danbury, the column was slowed by heavy rain and around 11:00 PM halted at nearby Bethel to rest and dry their powder.   To the west, word of Tryons  presence reached Brigadier General Alexander McDougall who began assembling Continental troops around Peekskill. Battle of Ridgefield - A Running Fight: Around dawn, Tryon departed Danbury and moved south with the intention of reaching the coast via Ridgefield.   In an effort to slow the British and allow additional American forces to arrive, Wooster and Arnold split their force with the latter taking 400 men directly to Ridgefield while the former harassed the enemys rear.   Unaware of Woosters pursuit, Tryon paused for breakfast approximately three miles north of Ridgefield.   A veteran of the 1745 Siege of Louisbourg, the French Indian War, and the American Revolutions Canadian  Campaign, the experienced Wooster struck and successfully surprised the British rearguard, killing two and capturing forty.   Quickly withdrawing, Wooster  attacked again an hour later.  Ã‚  Better prepared for action,  British artillery repelled the Americans and Wooster fell mortally wounded. As fighting commenced north of Ridgefield, Arnold and his men worked to build barricades in the town and blockaded the streets.   Around noon, Tryon advanced on the town and commenced an artillery bombardment of the American positions.   Hoping to flank the barricades, he then sent forward troops on either side of the town.   Having anticipated this, Silliman had deployed his men in blocking positions.   With his initial efforts halted, Tryon made use of his numerical advantage and attacked on both flanks as well as pushed 600 men  directly against the barricade.   Supported by artillery fire, the British succeeded in turning Arnolds flank and  running battle ensued as  the Americans withdrew  down Town Street.   In the course of the fighting, Arnold was nearly captured when his horse was killed, briefly pinning  him between the lines. Battle of Ridgefield - Back to the Coast: Having driven off the defenders, Tyrons column camped for the night south of town.   During this time, Arnold and Silliman regrouped their men and received reinforcements in the form of additional New York and Connecticut militia as well as a company of Continental artillery under Colonel John Lamb.   The next day, while Arnold established a blocking position on Compo Hill that overlooked the roads leading to the landing beach, militia forces conducted an intense harassment of the British column similar to that faced during the British withdraw from Concord in 1775.   Moving south, Tryon crossed the Saugatuck above Arnolds position forcing the American commander to join the militia in  pursuit. Reaching the coast, Tryon was met by reinforcements from the fleet.   Arnold attempted an attack with the support of Lambs guns, but was pushed back by a British bayonet charge.   Losing another horse, he was unable to rally and reform his men to make another assault.   Having held, Tryon  re-embarked his men and departed for New York City. Battle of Ridgefield - Aftermath: The fighting at the Battle of Ridgefield and supporting actions saw the Americans lose 20 killed and  40 to 80 wounded, while Tryons command reported casualties of 26 killed, 117 wounded, and 29 missing.   Though the raid on Danbury achieved its objectives, the resistance faced during the return to the coast caused concern.   As a result, future raiding operations in Connecticut were limited to the coast including an attack by Tryon in 1779 and one by Arnold after his betrayal that resulted in the 1781 Battle of Groton Heights.  Ã‚  In addition, Tryons actions led to an increase in support for the Patriot cause in Connecticut including an upswing in enlistments.   Newly-raised troops from the  colony would aid Major General Horatio Gates later that year in the victory at Saratoga.   In recognition  for his contributions  during the Battle of Ridgefield, Arnold received  his much-delayed promotion to major general  as well as a new horse. Selected Sources: Town of Ridgefield: Battle of RidgefieldKeeler Tavern Museum: Battle of Ridgefield Ridgefield Historical Society